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Metformin reversed the obese state and alleviated airway inflammation and remodeling, with increased Tregs and related transcription factors in HFD- and OVA-induced airway sensitization (Al-Qahtani et al

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PEG-MGF is associated with localized repair signaling, while IGF-1 LR3 is involved in systemic growth and anabolic processes

Moreover, emerging evidence indicates that CNMs can be fermented by gut bacteria into bioactive metabolites like butyrate, which then modulate host physiology, such as intestinal stem cell differentiation highlighting not only toxicological but also transformative microbialhost interactions ( in vitro systems such as gut-on-chip platforms are increasingly integrated into tiered risk frameworks to enhance hazard identification without excessive animal use